Cinematography IV - Shot Composition

You must learn these terms and use them at all times throughout your essay when discussing key sequences of the films you are analysing. Whilst shot composition will form only one part of an essay on cinematography, every film uses a variety of shots that are included in this section, alongside a range of depths of field, and these shots are used to create relatively consistent effects for the audience across those films. Writing about shot composition is relatively straightforward so I would suggest that most essays about cinematography should include a paragraph on some aspect of shot composition (usually related to loose/tight framing or depth of field).

Sometimes the questions in the exam will focus broadly on film form, whilst at other times the questions may direct you more specifically to discuss cinematography, encouraging you to consider the ways it is used to create meaning for the audience. Questions on film form are applicable to ALL of the films studied on the course and a thorough appreciation of camerawork (here, shot composition may form one part of your discussion) and the effects of framing shots in a particular way will also be crucial in your practical coursework (both in your script and your storyboard).

In the exams, questions might focus on other Core Areas of Study (such as aesthetics, representation and context) or Specialist Areas of Study (including spectatorship, narrative, ideology, auteur, critical debates and filmmakers' theories). Even though these questions do not specifically ask you to discuss film form, you will be expected to discuss film language (including shot composition) in your essays.

REMEMBER, the ways in which shots are composed usually suggest something specific about characters to the audience or may create expectations for the spectator about what may happen next in the narrative. Often, shot composition draws the audience's attention to a specific (significant) part of the frame. The tightly framed shot above, from Milos Forman's One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest, hints at a togetherness, a solidarity amongst the patients at the mental institute since the arrival of Randle P. McMurphy (Jack Nicholson) whilst also reinforcing the notion that the characters are trapped, both within the walls of the institute and by their own anxieties (many of them are free to leave but choose to stay of their own free will). The growing bond between the group hints at events that come later in the narrative where the men rise up together to defy Nurse Ratched.

TWO SHOT

As the name suggests, a two shot (like the one above of Rocket and Angelica from Fernando Meirelles' City of God) features two characters in the frame. What is crucial, when discussing two shots, is the proxemics of the characters; where these characters are positioned in relation to each other. In the shot above, the characters are next to each other in close proximity. Positioning characters closely next to each other in the frame is often used to suggest to the spectator that the characters have a close bond or a strong relationship. In the scene above the characters appear on the verge of a relationship with each other, something that begins to develop until Angelica meets Benny later in the narrative.

Similarly, the two shot above of Randle P. McMurphy and Chief from One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest shows the way that their relationship has developed as the narrative has progressed (frequently, from almost the moment McMurphy arrives at the institute, the pair are shot in close two shots), highlighting the close bond between them that culminates in Chief's poignant actions at the climax of the film.

Close two shots are, however, often used to reinforce tension and conflict between characters and to indicate to the spectator that violence is likely to erupt. The two shot above, of Begbie and Renton in close proximity in Danny Boyle's Trainspotting, emphasises Begbie's dangerous aggression (a trait that has significant consequences later in the narrative) and the power he has over Renton at this point (Renton lets him stay in his bedsit in London, powerless from preventing him doing so).

Conversely, two shots that feature characters with significant distance between them, often at opposite edges of the frame or with an object between them (as in the shot above taken from Guillermo Del Toro's Pan's Labyrinth), suggest animosity, a distanced relationship or a relationship that has broken down. Ofelia, the film's young central protagonist, has an ever-fluctuating relationship with Pan, the Faun; at times she appears to trust him but as the narrative progresses she becomes more skeptical of his intentions and begins to suspect he is motivated by evil, The distance that grows between them (until Ofelia's, and the spectator's, fears about his motives are disproven in the film's climactic moments) is marked by a shift away from closely framed two shots to two shots that emphasise a breakdown in their relationship.

Contrast this with the two shot above which shows Ofelia in close proximity to Mercedes, someone she trusts and who provides her with love and support throughout the young girl's trials and traumas (particularly after Ofelia's mother dies). The distance between the characters in both shots instantly hints to the audience the respective relationships between the characters.

Finally, two shots are often framed so that one character is in the foreground of the shot whilst the other is in the background. The relative positioning of the characters in relation to each other is often used to establish a hierarchy of importance to the audience. In the shot above, from One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest, Nurse Ratched is positioned in the foreground whilst a junior Staff Nurse is positioned in the background, behind her. The shot foregrounds Nurse Ratched's authority, in this case emphasising that she is the lead Nurse at the institute, whilst also reinforcing her dominance and control over all of the patients. It is this power and control that McMurphy tests and undermines during the course of the narrative; significantly, it is Nurse Ratched that wins the power struggle which leads to McMurphy's eventual lobotomy.

POINT OF VIEW SHOT (POV)

Point of view shots (or POVs) are framed in such a way so that it appears that the spectator is viewing things from a character's perspective, as if through their eyes. These shots are highly subjective and are frequently used to position the audience with the character whose perspective we are seeing. Often, this character is the central protagonist of the narrative, though in certain genres, such as the horror genre, the viewer often witnesses the perspective of the killer or monster (the antagonist) as they stalk, and watch, their prey. Usually, as in the shots above taken from Matt Ross' Captain Fantastic, a POV shot is framed by shots of the character's face to help the audience understand that what they are witnessing is from that character's perspective. In the shots above Bo looks down towards the dying deer he has just killed as part of his initiation into manhood; the shots of the eyes suggest that Bo is now one with nature and that he is more comfortable in this environment than the urban environment that his family visit later in the narrative. For many viewers, the killing of the deer may be seen as a brutal and violent act but there seems to be a serenity here that is sadly lacking in the 'civilised' society that Bo and his family struggle to fit into as the film progresses.

OVER THE SHOULDER SHOT

Over the shoulder shots, such as the one seen above of Bo and his father, Ben, in Captain Fantastic, are typically used during conversation sequences. The camera is placed behind one of the characters' so that the back of their head and their shoulder is visible in the corner of the frame (in the example above, Ben). The rest of the frame during a conversation will be dominated by a front-on shot of the other character (in the shot above, Bo). 

Typically the sequence will be edited in a shot-reverse shot pattern, alternating between the characters as they talk (as in the sequence above of Cobb and Fischer in Christopher Nolan's Inception). Frequently, the character speaking is shown front-on, drawing the audience's attention to their dialogue. Often, however, it is the character whose shoulder we are behind who speaks; here, the audience's attention and focus is on the character who is listening and, in this case, what is most important for the viewer is the character's reaction to what is being said.

Filmmakers typically follow this pattern during conversation sequences, though it is perfectly possible to film conversation sequences in alternative ways. In Pulp Fiction, for example, the director Quentin Tarantino rarely shoots any of the conversation sequences in the film using over the shoulder shots and the shot-reverse shot pattern of editing. Instead, he breaks convention by shooting dialogue sequences in a variety of camera set-ups (from behind characters who are next to each other so that the back of both characters' heads are seen in close up or extreme long shots) that contribute to the experimental nature of the film. 

Even when Tarantino uses over the shoulder shots he breaks with convention, placing the camera behind the character who is speaking (Marcellus, who is in focus) whilst showing the character who is listening front-on, but out of focus (Butch).

Sometimes over the shoulder shots will only feature one character and the majority of the frame will be dominated by the setting or landscape. In many ways, these types of over-the shoulder shots have the effect of placing the audience with or alongside the character in much the same ways as POV shots.

TIGHT FRAMING

In tightly framed shots there is very little background space, so that a character(s) (or object) appears to fill most of the frame. Often tight framing is used to create a sense of claustrophobia and to give a sense that a character is trapped or imprisoned, as in the shot of Renton above, taken from Trainspotting. These types of shots can be unsettling for the audience and are frequently used to create tension or to help the audience experience a character's anxiety. In the scene above, Renton is experiencing hallucinogenic withdrawal symptoms as he attempts to come of heroin. The withdrawal is making him feel claustrophobic and he is desperate to break out of the bedroom his parents have locked him in so that he can get another hit. More broadly, in the film the director Danny Boyle frequently uses tightly framed shots to imply that the characters' drug use has trapped them in terms of their social mobility (an ideological comment on the political reality of poverty and unemployment experienced by many during the Conservative rule in the 1980s and 1990s). 

Notice the contrast with the loosely framed shot of Renton at the end of the narrative, when he has made the decision to move on from heroin (a resolution that foreshadows the relative mobility that came with Labour's victory under Tony Blair in 1997, a year after the film was released).

 

Alternatively, as in the shots above and below (from One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest and City of God respectively), tight framing is often used to represent a sense of unity, togetherness and belonging. In One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest Randle P. McMurphy (played by Jack Nicholson) brings the various, disparate patients of the mental institute together, bonding them with a sense of unity against the intimidatory Nurse Ratched, who sees McMurphy as a threat to her authority. The above scene, where McMurphy pretends to watch the World Series, is just one of many examples of tightly framed shots used by director Milos Forman to emphasise McMurphy's attempts to get the patients to unify against the 'system' (others include the fishing trip he takes them on and the card school he sets up).

Whilst the shot above of Lil' Ze's gang in City of God (and the shot of McMurphy and the patients in One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest) undoubtedly suggest strength in numbers and a sense of togetherness, it is worth noting that in both films the shots also emphasise the ways in which the characters are trapped by their social situations. In City of God, the characters are trapped by their poverty and the cycle of violence that is an inevitable consequence of the lifestyle they lead. In One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest, the characters are unable to escape the various anxieties that keep them trapped inside the walls of the mental institute, even though all but three of them are there voluntarily.

LOOSE FRAMING

In loosely framed shots, as in the shot above of Shaun from Shane Meadows' This is England, there is a great deal of background space around a character(s) or object. Loose framing is primarily used to suggest to the audience that a character is vulnerable, isolated or under threat but it can also be used to suggest a sense of freedom. 

In This is England, the young protagonist Shaun is frequently shot using loose framing, particularly at the beginning of the movie. We learn that his father has been killed in the Falklands War and we witness him being bullied; instantly, the audience are made aware of his vulnerability and loneliness, which make him ripe for indoctrination by Combo (the frighteningly violent, fascist skinhead who returns from prison to recruit for the National Front). It is Shaun's age, relative innocence and his absent father that make him particularly susceptible to Combo's vile racist ideology and the loosely framed shots at the beginning of the film foreshadow the danger he is in; how vulnerable he is. In the shot on the beach, from the final scene of the film, it is certainly possible to argue that Shaun has freed himself from Combo and that the loose framing suggests that he has turned his back on the racist ideology that had begun to engulf him. This freedom is reinforced with Shaun's last action in the film - throwing the cross of St George flag into the sea.

DEEP FOCUS

Cameras can be equipped with lenses of various focal lengths which give filmmakers control over what is or is not in focus at any given time. In deep focus shots everything in the foreground and background is clearly in focus. When deep focus cinematography is used the spectator can see details of an entire scene and is encouraged to make a connection between what is happening in the foreground of the shot and what they can see in the background. Often, deep focus shots place the audience in a more privileged position than the characters, particularly those in the foreground who may be unaware of what is happening behind them. Many of the short films directed by Buster Keaton, for example, utilise deep focus cinematography to emphasise the physical comedy that is developing in the background of the shots. The shot above, taken from Buster Keaton's short film One Week, is shot in deep focus which enables the audience to clearly see events taking place in the background of the shot, placing the spectator in a more privileged position than the characters who are situated in the foreground.

SHALLOW FOCUS

When shallow focus is used only part of the frame is clearly in focus whilst the rest of the frame is blurred, simplifying the image and drawing the audience's attention to the part of the frame which is in focus. Director's use shallow focus to emphasis the importance of a particular character or prop to the audience or to reduce the importance of elements within the frame which are blurred. In the shots above, taken from Matt Ross' Captain Fantastic and Guillermo Del Toro's Pan's Labyrinth respectively, the foreground is blurred whilst the background is in focus. In both cases, the spectator's attention is drawn to the character's in the background; Bo in Captain Fantastic and Captain Vidal in Pan's Labyrinth.

More commonly shallow focus will place the foreground in focus whilst the background is blurred. Again, the audience's attention is drawn to the area of the frame that is in focus, as in the shot above from Christopher Nolan's Inception, which foregrounds the importance of Cobb's totem, the spinning top.

In the shot above, of Mia Wallace from Quentin Tarantino's Pulp Fiction, Mia is in the foreground and in focus whilst the background space is blurred. Here, the director uses shallow focus to draw attention to Mia and her dialogue with Vincent.

Sometimes the foreground and background will be blurred, whilst the middle ground is focus, as in the shot above from Milos Forman's One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest which draws our attention to Randle P. McMurphy, the film's main protagonist. This is still shallow focus.

RACK FOCUS

Often a director will shift from one type of shallow focus to another type of shallow focus within the same shot. This is known as rack focus and this technique forces the audience to shift their attention from one part of the frame to another. Frequently this technique is used to reveal something in the background space to the audience, potentially shocking the spectator OR to shift the focus of our attention during a dialogue sequence. 

In the shot above from Quentin Tarantino's Pulp Fiction rack focus is used to reveal the sinister Gimp who is locked in a box in a room behind Marcellus and Butch. As the shot begins, Marcellus and Butch are in focus (in the foreground) whilst Maynard and the Gimp are blurred (in the background). This creates tension as the audience cannot clearly see what is in the background. As the scene progresses, Tarantino shifts focus so that Marcellus and Butch (in the foreground) are blurred whilst the Gimp is revealed in the background (which is in focus).